But in each scenario, S is also morally responsible for E in W1 in virtue of the fact that Ss action in W1 is congruent with Ss action in W2 (it is congruent with what S would have done in a world with alternate possibilities). What is a second-order wanton? Here, Frankfurt presents the act of being able to do otherwise as a necessary condition for the ascription of moral responsibility. But if you look at their visions more as a commentary on society and an exploration of concepts rather than a literal plan to destroy and rebuild cities (though they certainly may have intended the latter), it becomes clear that both architects recognized the same problems inherent in their cities. It may be asked whether we cannot prevent the development of military nucleonics in other countries by a monopoly on the raw materials of nuclear power. I follow this with a discussion on how PAP(s) is able to withstand the challenge set by Frankfurt-style scenarios, before moving on to consider a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility. (a) Describe: How does the father react to the stranger's request to look around? In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r Although important tactical results undoubtedly can be achieved by a sudden introduction of nuclear weapons, we nevertheless think that the question of the use of the very first available atomic bombs in the Japanese war should be weighed very carefully, not only by military authorities, but by the highest political leadership of this country. Jefferson's key arguments for independence consisted primarily of the Crown's imposition of taxes and trade restrictions onto the Colonies, but was quite clear about the issue not being the severity of the offense but much more in that the Crown had overstepped lines of mutual respect and consent, ie "No Taxation Without Representation." The power lines damagedbythestorm\underline{\text{damaged by the storm}}damagedbythestorm needed repairs. An example of this would be a form of Sophies choice whereby S is ordered at gun point to kill one of his two children. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. Part of Springer Nature. Including a soundproof, well-lit living room and a double-faade of glass to control the effects of outside temperature, Le Corbusiers habitable towers were to include at least twelve dwelling floors each and accommodate 1,000 people per hectare (2.47 acres). We feel compelled to take a more active stand now because the success which we have achieved in the development of nuclear power is fraught with infinitely greater dangers than were all the inventions of the past. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. The first major challenge to this interpretation was advanced in Germany in the 1960s, where the historian Fritz Fischer published a startling new thesis on the origins of the war which threatened to overthrow the existing consensus. Writing that American skyscrapers have yet to earn the title of architecture, but are merely small objects such as statuettes or knick-knacks, magnified to titanic proportion, Le Corbusier proposes his plan for the skyscraper. During that year, the international Jean Piaget Society was formed, and the society, as well as Piaget's influence, endure. Explain the "Frankfurt case" of Jones & Black argument against PAP. Thomas M. Franck Murry and Ida Becker Professor of Law Emeritus Professor Franck graduated from the University of British Columbia with a b.a. In the following sentences, circle the word that each underlined participial phrase modifies and draw an arrow from the participial phrase to the word it modifies. Third parties often bring attention to topics that are unpopular or unknown. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. The essays were aimed at convincing opponents of the US Constitution to ratify it so that it . For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions He received the National Book Foundation's 5 Under 35 Award for his story collection Third Class Superhero, and was a finalist for the PEN Center USA Literary Award. The principle of alternate possibilities and ought implies can.. Despite the intricacies of some of these continuing debates, focus remains on PAP as a necessary condition for moral responsibility. Supporters of the bombings generally believe that they prevented an invasion of the Japanese mainland, saving more lives than they took by doing so. Thus, from the "optimistic" point of view -- looking forward to an international agreement on the prevention of nuclear warfare -- the military advantages and the saving of American lives achieved by the sudden use of atomic bombs against Japan may be outweighed by the ensuing loss of confidence and by a wave of horror and repulsion sweeping over the rest of the world and perhaps even dividing public opinion at home. What if cult-man is brainwashed? Much more favorable conditions for the eventual achievement of such an agreement could be created if nuclear bombs were first revealed to the world by a demonstration in an appropriately selected uninhabited area. One may point out that scientists themselves have initiated the development of this "secret weapon" and it is therefore strange that they should be reluctant to try it out on the enemy as soon as it is available. 7388). This is supposed to show that even if we think we have alternative possibilities, we don't actually. If this is the case, then we are in a position that is ultimately no different to the original formulation of PAP in which it is necessary that the subject could have done otherwise. The Journal of Philosophy Why, according to Kane, does this example fail to show what Dennett thinks it shows? Now the doctrine that coercion and moral responsi- Published By: Journal of Philosophy, Inc. The team usually (donates, donate) their old uniforms to a group of disadvantaged youth. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. esponsibility to protect their citizens from atrocious crimesand in 2006 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1674, which commits the Council to protect civilians during armed conflicts. One might even say that the presence of a counterfactual intervener means that the environment does not enable alternate possibilities; so (b) is not satisfied. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. Jones is therefore morally responsible for his action (even in a world corresponding to W1) in virtue of doing what he would have done in a world where alternate possibilities exist (namely, W2). What is Kane's "Indeterministic worlds" objection to the FF case? Among all the arguments calling for an efficient international organization for peace, the existence of nuclear weapons is the most compelling one. As Jones did what he would have done in the absence of Black, he acted in a manner congruent with what he would have done in a world with alternate possibilities (which is equivalent to W2). Once this is achieved, the large installations and the accumulation of explosive material at present earmarked for potential military use will become available for important peacetime developments, including power production, large engineering undertakings, and mass production of radioactive materials. the four top leaders in Congress and the chief justice of the Supreme Court. Production of nuclear explosives begins with the processing of large quantities of uranium in large isotope separation plants or huge production piles. Zagzebski, L. (2000). d) In conclusion, I aim to have shown that by positioning the principle of alternate possibilities as a sufficient condition for the ascription of moral responsibility, rather than as necessary, PAP(s) amounts to as useful a maxim as PAP for determining moral accountability. Obviously believing his adversarys ideas to be impractical and beneficial only to the wealthy, Wright criticizes Le Corbusiers housing towers further, asserting [t]here is no life in them. Willing addict is responsible for action but his will is not free. Where S engages in action E, if (a) and (b) are satisfied then S is morally responsible for E. Stating this does not negate the possibility that S could still be held morally responsible for E, however, even where (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied, should another sufficient condition (as yet unspecified) be met. In the war to which such an armaments race is likely to lead, the United States, with its agglomeration of population and industry in comparatively few metropolitan districts, will be at a disadvantage compared to nations whose populations and industry are scattered over large areas. As a role for alternate possibilities is necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility, and as different forms of this role are inherent within the two sufficient conditions described above, what is necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility is that one of these aforementioned sufficient conditions is satisfied. Not three months later came Frank Lloyd Wrights rebuttal. "For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences.". Jones is incapable of making a decision that differs from what Black wants him to decide, and subsequently is incapable of doing other than what Black wants him to do. Professor Franck Japanese government propaganda instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese population, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs. 95110). This further condition which I am calling twin world explains why we are still justified in assigning moral responsibility to an agent who fails to satisfy PAP in the manner described within Frankfurts counter-example. Instead it has harnessed us to itself and plunged us into slavery, he wrote. Choose Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. In contrast once again to Le Corbusier, Wright predicts that [t]he traffic problem will be solved as architecture. Do you agree that under certain circumstances, R2P should override sovereignty? This protection can come only from the political organization of the world. 20) Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? Neither Le Corbusier nor Frank Lloyd Wright could truly be said to have won the argument played out in the 1930s newspaper, as both got some ideas right and many wrong. The manner in which alternate possibilities are presented differs, though, within each of the sufficient conditions discussed. Princeton University student: Conservatives are being shut down before they can even voice an opinion. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument for an international agreement would likely argue that nuclear weapons pose a global threat that cannot be addressed by individual states alone. Why, according to Kane, does this example fail to show what Dennett thinks it shows?, Frankfurt Examples. Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. In other words, there is nothing to be lost in terms of our commitment to understanding the conditions for moral accountability by treating PAP as a sufficient condition, but much to be gained: for not only is PAP(s) impervious to Frankfurt-style counter-examples (as noted) but, perhaps more importantly, it opens up debate on what other factors are likewise sufficient for moral responsibility as the Frankfurt-style scenarios seem to indicate and which, if any, is necessary. The advantage of PAP(s) over Frankfurts original PAP, however, is that should (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied then this does not rule out the possibility that S is nevertheless morally responsible for E. Under the terms of the original PAP, the possibility just described would not exist; which of course Frankfurt, through the use of his counter-example, tried to show was an erroneous outcome: for, intuitively, we feel that S is still responsible for what he does, even though he could not have done otherwise. He may have also been fueled by heroic amounts of . Division of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham, NG1 4BU, UK, You can also search for this author in 231248). One possible way to introduce nuclear weapons to the world -- which may particularly appeal to those who consider nuclear bombs primarily as a secret weapon developed to help with the present war -- is to use them without warning on appropriately selected objects in Japan. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. However, even though these countries may value human life less than the peoples of Western Europe and America, and even though Russia, in particular, has an immense space over which its vital industries could be dispersed and a government which can order this dispersion the day it is convinced that such a measure is necessary -- there is no doubt that Russia, too, will shudder at the possibility of a sudden, disintegration of Moscow and Leningrad, almost miraculously preserved in the present war, and of its new industrial cities in the Urals and Siberia. Garry Young. Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. B We believe that our acquaintance with the scientific elements of the situation and prolonged preoccupation with its world-wide political implications, imposes on us the obligation to offer to the Committee some suggestions as to the possible solution of these grave problems. All of us, familiar with the present state of nucleonics, live with the vision before our eyes of sudden destruction visited on our own country, of a Pearl Harbor disaster repeated in thousand-fold magnification in every one of our major cities. the secretaries (leaders) of the departments of the executive branch. This new discovery had an immense amount of potential as a weapon of war. Perebooms Frankfurt case and derivative culpability. Why is the prisoner example ultimately not convincing?, Principle of . Inherent within each of the aforementioned sufficient conditions is a role for alternate possibilities. The Journal of Philosophywas founded in 1904 asThe Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methodsby Frederick J. E. Woodbridge and J. McKeen Cattell. Unreflectively accepts leaders orders: he wants to want this. As for society and individual's relationship to it, Emerson believes that being an individual . Wholehearted commitment: we reach a level where we realize there is no need for further assessment. It must be pointed out that in this field we are in a less favorable position than nations which are now more diffusely populated and either whose industries are more scattered, or whose governments have unlimited power over the movement of population and the location of industrial plants. To explain, briefly: where the sign (which is different in different authors examples)Footnote 2 indicates to Black (or whoever or whatever is the counterfactual intervener) that Jones (or whoever it happens to be) is about to decide to do something contrary to Blacks wishes then Black intervenes, thereby limiting Jones decision to one possibility only, which is of course congruent with Blacks wishes. It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. Obviously, no time should be lost in inaugurating a study of this problem by experts. However, we found ourselves, by the force of events, during the last five years, in the position of a small group of citizens cognizant of a grave danger for the safety of this country as well as for the future of all the other nations, of which the rest of mankind is unaware. - 103.138.151.18. Also, we have arguably not yet made the progress toward seamless technological integration he had hoped for. The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, Moral Responsibility, Alternative Possibilities, and Acting on Ones Own, Individually Sufficient and Disjunctively Necessary Conditions for Moral Responsibility, The Robustness Requirement on Alternative Possibilities, Problems with Rowlands Practical Conciliationism, How (not) to construct worlds with responsibility, In Search of the Trinity: A Dilemma for Parfits Conciliatory Project, Being and holding responsible: Reconciling the disputants through a meaning-based Strawsonian account, Lueck, Bryan: Obligation and the fact of sense, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2019, ISBN: 978 1 4744 4272 5. In J. Jordan, & D. Howard-Snyder (Eds. Accumulations of this kind could be rapidly converted into atomic bombs if a nation should break away from international control. Igniting the flicker of freedom: revisiting the Frankfurt scenario. But this is not a necessary one; although, where satisfied, it is sufficient for the ascription of moral responsibility, as I have discussed.